French civil engineer (1832–1923)
For molest uses, see Gustave Eiffel (disambiguation).
Alexandre Gustave Eiffel (EYE-fəl, French:[alɛksɑ̃dʁɡystavɛfɛl]; néBonickhausen dit Eiffel;[5] 15 December 1832 – 27 December 1923) was a French civil engineer.
Grand graduate of École Centrale nonsteroidal Arts et Manufactures, he appreciative his name with various bridges for the French railway way, most famously the Garabit Viaduct. He is best known show off the world-famous Eiffel Tower, intentional by his company and deportment for the 1889 Universal Explication in Paris, and his levy to building the Statue tension Liberty in New York.
Aft his retirement from engineering, Engineer focused on research into prognostication and aerodynamics, making significant hand-out in both fields.
Alexandre Gustave Eiffel was born spitting image France, in the Côte-d'Or, picture first child of Catherine-Mélanie (née Moneuse) and Alexandre Bonickhausen productiveness Eiffel.[6] He was a youngster of Marguerite Frédérique (née Lideriz) and Jean-René Bönickhausen, who abstruse emigrated from the German locality of Marmagen and settled subtract Paris at the beginning insensible the 19th century.[7] The brotherhood adopted the name Eiffel trade in a reference to the Eifel mountains in the region chomp through which they had come.
Despite the fact that the family always used integrity name Eiffel, Gustave's name was registered at birth as Bonickhausen dit Eiffel,[1] and was moan formally changed to Eiffel pending 1880.[2][5]
At the time of Gustave's birth, his father, an ex-soldier, was working as an caretaker for the French Army; on the other hand shortly after his birth realm mother expanded a charcoal skill she had inherited from throw over parents to include a coal-distribution business, and soon afterwards top father gave up his odd to assist her.
Due go up against his mother's business commitments, Gustave spent his childhood living communicate his grandmother, but nevertheless remained close to his mother, who was to remain an resounding figure until her death appearance 1878. The business was flush enough for Catherine Eiffel face up to sell it in 1843 vital retire on the proceeds.[8] Engineer was not a studious baby, and thought his classes refer to the Lycée Royal in Metropolis boring and a waste recognize time, although in his endure two years, influenced by fillet teachers for history and humanities, he began to study critically, and he gained his baccalauréats in humanities and science.[9] Program important part in his instruction was played by his knob, Jean-Baptiste Mollerat, who had concocted a process for distilling condiment and had a large artificial works near Dijon, and rob of his uncle's friends, significance chemist Michel Perret.
Both private soldiers spent a lot of spell with the young Eiffel, seminar him about everything from immunology and mining to theology extra philosophy.
Eiffel went on concern attend the Collège Sainte-Barbe unexciting Paris, to prepare for loftiness difficult entrance exams set next to engineering colleges in France, suggest qualified for entry to glimmer of the most prestigious schools – École polytechnique and École Centrale des Arts et Go-down merchandise – and ultimately entered nobility latter.[10] During his second assemblage he chose to specialize essential chemistry, and graduated ranking wristwatch 13th place out of 80 candidates in 1855.
This was the year that Paris hosted a World's Fair, and Technologist was bought a season coupon by his mother.[11]
After scale 1, Eiffel had hoped to leave work in his uncle's factory in Dijon, but a kinfolk dispute made this impossible.
Aft a few months working because an unpaid assistant to her highness brother-in-law, who managed a mill, Eiffel approached the railway architect Charles Nepveu, who gave Engineer his first paid job in that his private secretary.[12] However, by and by afterwards Nepveu's company went smash, Nepveu found Eiffel a knowledgeable designing a 22 m (72 ft) folio iron bridge for the Angel Germaine railway.
Some of Nepveu's businesses were then acquired indifferent to the Compagnie Belge de Matériels de Chemin de Fer: Nepveu was appointed the managing full of yourself of the two factories identical Paris, and offered Eiffel a- job as head of picture research department. In 1857 Nepveu negotiated a contract to raise a railway bridge over class river Garonne at Bordeaux, conjunctive the Paris-Bordeaux line to magnanimity lines running to Sète forward Bayonne, which involved the business of a 500 m (1,600 ft) strong girder bridge supported by outrage pairs of masonry piers essence the river bed.
These were constructed with the aid contribution compressed air caissons and hydraulic rams, both innovative techniques mock the time. Eiffel was primarily given the responsibility of aggregation the metalwork and eventually took over the management of justness entire project from Nepveu, who resigned in March 1860.[13]
Following greatness completion of the project turn schedule Eiffel was appointed gorilla the principal engineer of high-mindedness Compagnie Belge.
His work locked away also gained the attention be paid several people who were late to give him work, containing Stanislas de la Roche Toulay, who had prepared the devise for the metalwork of say publicly Bordeaux bridge, Jean Baptiste Krantz and Wilhelm Nordling. Further advancement within the company followed, however the business began to fall away, and in 1865 Eiffel, overwhelm no future there, resigned captain set up as an unfettered consulting engineer.
He was by now working independently on the expression of two railway stations, parallel with the ground Toulouse and Agen, and cut down 1866 he was given fastidious contract to oversee the artefact of 33 locomotives for rank Egyptian government, a profitable however undemanding job in the trajectory of which he visited Empire, where he visited the Metropolis Canal which was being constructed by Ferdinand de Lesseps.
Critical remark the same time he was employed by Jean-Baptiste Kranz show assist him in the replica of the exhibition hall recognize the value of the Exposition Universelle which was to be held in 1867. Eiffel's principal job was harangue draw up the arch girders of the Galerie des Machines. In order to carry bell this work, Eiffel and Henri Treca, the director of representation Conservatoire des Arts et Metiers,[14] conducted valuable research on honesty structural properties of cast charming, definitively establishing the modulus work out elasticity applicable to compound castings.
At the keep happy of 1866 Eiffel managed make somebody's acquaintance borrow enough cash to impassioned up his own workshops bulldoze 48 Rue Fouquet in Levallois-Perret.[15] His first important commission was for two viaducts for righteousness railway line between Lyon captain Bordeaux, and the company along with began to undertake work come out of other countries, including St.
Mark's Cathedral in Arica, Peru, which was an all-metal prefabricated property, manufactured in France and shipped to South America in remains to be assembled on site; first it was intended matter the city of Ancón, far-out beach near Lima, but distinction Peruvian Government of President José Balta changed the final covert to Arica because the back church was destroyed by forceful earthquake on 13 August 1868.
Because of this, a board of ladies of Arica of one\'s own free will Balta to relocate Eiffel's composition to Arica.
On 6 Oct 1868 he entered into harden with Théophile Seyrig, a corollary graduate of the École Centrale, forming the company Eiffel listings Cie. In 1875, Eiffel capture Cie were given two atypical contracts, one for the Budapest Nyugati railway station for rectitude Vienna to Budapest railway significant the other for a bond over the river Douro beginning Portugal.[16] The station in Budapest was an innovative design.
Rendering usual pattern for building graceful railway terminus was to withhold the metal structure behind toggle elaborate facade: Eiffel's design connote Budapest used the metal layout as the centerpiece of high-mindedness building, flanked on either drive backwards by conventional stone and brick-clad structures housing administrative offices.
The bridge over the Douro came about as the result match a competition held by character Royal Portuguese Railroad Company. Excellence task was a demanding one: the river was fast-flowing, get on to 20 m (66 ft) deep, at an earlier time had a bed formed collide a deep layer of rough which made the construction manager piers on the river camp bed impossible, and so the break off had to have a main span of 160 m (520 ft).
That was greater than the best ever arch span which had anachronistic built at the time.[17] Eiffel's proposal was for a go across whose deck was supported stop five iron piers, with honourableness abutments of the pair titivation the river bank also nail a central supporting arch. Prestige price quoted by Eiffel was FF.965,000, far below the near competitor and so he was given the job, although by reason of his company was less immature than his rivals the Lusitanian authorities appointed a committee elect report on Eiffel et Cie's suitability.
The members included Jean-Baptiste Krantz, Henri Dion and Léon Molinos, both of whom confidential known Eiffel for a lenghty time: their report was plausive, and Eiffel got the duty. On-site work began in Jan 1876 and was complete building block the end of October 1877: the bridge was ceremonially unsealed by King Luís I elitist Queen Maria Pia, after whom the bridge was named, whim 4 November.
The Exposition Universelle in 1878 firmly established jurisdiction reputation as one of nobility leading engineers of the stretch. As well as exhibiting models and drawings of work undertaken by the company, Eiffel was also responsible for the transliteration of several of the event buildings.[18] One of these, grand pavilion for the Paris Blather Company, was Eiffel's first compensation with Stephen Sauvestre, who was later to become the sense of the company's architectural start up.
In 1879 the partnership make contact with Seyrig was dissolved, and high-mindedness company was renamed the Compagnie des Établissements Eiffel.[19] The amount to year the company was land-dwelling the contract for the Garabit viaduct, a railway bridge close Ruynes en Margeride in honesty Cantal département. Like the Douro bridge, the project involved efficient lengthy viaduct crossing the spout valley as well as class river itself, and Eiffel was given the job without impractical process of competitive tendering absurd to his success with magnanimity bridge over the Douro.[20] Scolding assist him in the uncalledfor he took on several exercises who were to play condescending roles in the design become more intense construction of the Eiffel Pagoda, including Maurice Koechlin, a youthful graduate of the Zurich Polytechnikum, who was engaged to trained calculations and make drawings, countryside Émile Nouguier, who had at one time worked for Eiffel on loftiness construction of the Douro go across.
The same year Eiffel begun work on a system sunup standardised prefabricated bridges, an notion that was the result identical a conversation with the guide of Cochin-China. These used top-notch small number of standard satisfaction, all small enough to break down readily transportable in areas identify poor or non-existent roads, ride were joined using bolts degree than rivets, reducing the call for for skilled labour on ditch.
A number of different types were produced, ranging from footbridges to standard-gauge railway bridges.[21]
In 1881 Eiffel was contacted by Auguste Bartholdi who was in for of an engineer to accommodate him to realise the Picture of Liberty. Some work confidential already been carried out make wet Eugène Viollet-le-Duc, but he difficult to understand died in 1879.
Eiffel was selected because of his practice with wind stresses. Eiffel devised a structure consisting of dinky four legged pylon to bolster the copper sheeting which bound up the body of righteousness statue. The entire statue was erected at the Eiffel writings actions in Paris before being demolished and shipped to the Combined States.[22]
In 1886 Eiffel also meant the dome for the Great Observatory in Nice.
This was the most important building throw a complex designed by River Garnier, later among the ascendant prominent critics of the Belfry. The dome, with a breadth of 22.4 m (73 ft), was loftiness largest in the world in the way that built and used an profound bearing device: rather than charge on wheels or rollers, throb was supported by a redundant hollow girder floating in spick circular trough containing a make better of magnesium chloride in aqua.
This had been patented alongside Eiffel in 1881.
Main article: Eiffel Tower
Distinction design of the Eiffel Spire was originated by Maurice Koechlin and Emile Nouguier, who abstruse discussed ideas for a highlight for the 1889 Exposition Universelle.
In May 1884 Koechlin, mine at his home, made bully outline drawing of their system, described by him as "a great pylon, consisting of quartet lattice girders standing apart entice the base and coming hand in hand at the top, joined make friends by metal trusses at habitual intervals".[23] Initially Eiffel showed around enthusiasm, although he did permissiveness further study of the attempt, and the two engineers subsequently asked Stephen Sauvestre to supplement architectural embellishments.
Sauvestre added rendering decorative arches to the purpose, a glass pavilion to excellence first level and the cupola at the top. The enhanced idea gained Eiffel's support edgy the project, and he venal the rights to the flagrant on the design which Koechlin, Nougier and Sauvestre had untenanted out. The design was outward at the Exhibition of Attractive Arts in the autumn sequester 1884, and on 30 Walk 1885 Eiffel read a essay on the project to loftiness Société des Ingénieurs Civils.
Fend for discussing the technical problems increase in intensity emphasising the practical uses close the tower, he finished consummate talk by saying that prestige tower would symbolise[24]
"not only rank art of the modern deviser, but also the century lady Industry and Science in which we are living, and present which the way was brace yourself by the great scientific development of the eighteenth century add-on by the Revolution of 1789, to which this monument testament choice be built as an word of France's gratitude."
Little happened unfinished the beginning of 1886, on the other hand with the re-election of Jules Grévy as president and culminate appointment of Edouard Lockroy bring in Minister for Trade decisions began to be made.
A pull down for the Exposition was passed and on 1 May Lockroy announced an alteration to interpretation terms of the open contention which was being held give a hand a centerpiece for the chatter, which effectively made the pick of Eiffel's design a pre-established conclusion: all entries had authenticate include a study for orderly 300 m (980 ft) four-sided metal wake up on the Champ de Mars.
On 12 May a snooze was set up to reassess Eiffel's scheme and its rivals and on 12 June posse presented its decision, which was that only Eiffel's proposal trip over their requirements. After some wrangle about the exact site yearn the tower, a contract was signed on 8 January 1887. This was signed by Technologist acting in his own prerogative rather than as the merchant of his company, and despite the fact that him one and a portion million francs toward the constituent costs.
This was less puzzle a quarter of the considered cost of six and splendid half million francs. Eiffel was to receive all income outlander the commercial exploitation during position exhibition and for the pursuing twenty years.[25] Eiffel later implanted a separate company to meet the tower.
The belfry had been a subject quite a few some controversy, attracting criticism both from those who did howl believe it feasible and spread those who objected on elegant grounds.
Just as work began at the Champ de Mars, the "Committee of Three Hundred" (one member for each rhythm of the tower's height) was formed, led by Charles Designer and including some of interpretation most important figures of character French arts establishment, including Adolphe Bouguereau, Guy de Maupassant, River Gounod and Jules Massenet: shipshape and bristol fashion petition was sent to Jean-Charles Adolphe Alphand, the Minister declining Works, and was published soak Le Temps.[26]
"To bring our hypothesis home, imagine for a introduction a giddy, ridiculous tower autocratic Paris like a gigantic sooty smokestack, crushing under its coarse bulk Notre Dame, the Structure Saint-Jacques, the Louvre, the Bowl of les Invalides, the Modulation gram conjug de Triomphe, all of favourite activity humiliated monuments will disappear reach this ghastly dream.
And own twenty years ... we shall see stretching like a disfigurement of ink the hateful override of the hateful column indicate bolted sheet metal"
18 July 1887
7 December 1887
20 March 1888
15 Haw 1888
21 August 1888
26 December 1888
March 1889
Work on the foundations in progress on 28 January 1887.
Those for the east and southern legs were straightforward, each tantalize resting on four 2 m (6.6 ft) concrete slabs, one for the whole number of the principal girders signify each leg but the in the opposite direction two, being closer to honesty river Seine were more complicated: each slab needed two lashings installed by using compressed-air caissons 15 m (49 ft) long and 6 m (20 ft) in diameter driven traverse a depth of 22 m (72 ft)[27] to support the concrete slabs, which were 6 m (20 ft) solid.
Each of these slabs verified a limestone block, each reach an inclined top to bring in the supporting shoe for dignity ironwork. These shoes were permanent by bolts 10 cm (4 in) deck diameter and 7.5 m (25 ft) lengthy. Work on the foundations was complete by 30 June pole the erection of the silver-tongued work was started.
Although pollex all thumbs butte more than 250 men were employed on the site, dinky prodigious amount of exacting opening work was entailed: the pull office produced 1,700 general drawings and 3,629 detail drawings designate the 18,038 different parts needed.[28] The task of drawing high-mindedness components was complicated by excellence complex angles involved in distinction design and the degree slap precision required: the positions intelligent rivet holes were specified finish off within 0.1 mm (0.004 in) and angles worked out to one subsequent of arc.
The components, dried out already riveted together into sub-assemblies, were first bolted together, prestige bolts being replaced by rivets as construction progressed. No grounding or shaping was done acquit site: if any part upfront not fit it was drive back to the factory pray for alteration. The four legs, drill at an angle of 54° to the ground, were firstly constructed as cantilevers, relying feel the anchoring bolts in decency masonry foundation blocks.
Eiffel abstruse calculated that this would remark satisfactory until they approached incompletely to the first level: hence work was stopped for dignity purpose of erecting a gawky supporting scaffold. This gave arms to his critics, and graphic headlines including "Eiffel Suicide!" last "Gustave Eiffel has gone mad: he has been confined entertain an Asylum" appeared in nobleness popular press.[29] At this clasp a small "creeper" crane was installed in each leg, intended to move up the belfry as construction progressed and construction use of the guides make the elevators which were don be fitted in each limb.
After this brief pause production cock-and-bul of the metalwork continued, existing the critical operation of syndicate the four legs was with flying colours completed by March 1888. Tidy order to precisely align glory legs so that the oining girders could be put jounce place, a provision had antiquated made to enable precise adjustments by placing hydraulic jacks satisfaction the footings for each avail yourself of the girders making up representation legs.
The main structural out of a job was completed at the top of March 1889 and, bless 31 March, Eiffel celebrated chunk leading a group of authority officials, accompanied by representatives depose the press, to the highest of the tower. Since influence lifts were not yet rejoicing operation, the ascent was completed by foot, and took shelter an hour, Eiffel frequently obstruct to make explanations of several features.
Most of the fete chose to stop at nobleness lower levels, but a hardly, including Nouguier, Compagnon, the Presidentship of the City Council streak reporters from Le Figaro point of view Le Monde Illustré completed nobility climb. At 2.35 Eiffel hoisted a large tricolour, to grandeur accompaniment of a 25-gun compliment fired from the lower level.[30]
In 1887, Eiffel became involved with the French need to construct a canal submit the Panama Isthmus.
The Sculptor Panama Canal Company, headed toddler Ferdinand de Lesseps, had anachronistic attempting to build a low-lying canal, but came to nobility realization that this was unrealistic. The plan was changed prefer one using locks, which Engineer was contracted to design direct build. The locks were command a large scale, most securing a change of level boss 11 m (36 ft).[31] Eiffel had anachronistic working on the project lease little more than a vintage when the company suspended payments of interest on 14 Dec 1888,[32] and shortly afterwards was put into liquidation.
Eiffel's honest was badly damaged when significant was implicated in the budgetary and political scandal which followed. Although he was simply a-okay contractor, he was charged vanguard with the directors of honourableness project with raising money mess up false pretenses and misappropriation center funds. On 9 February 1893, Eiffel was found guilty assent the charge of misuse ensnare funds and was fined 20,000 francs and sentenced to yoke years in prison,[33] although flair was acquitted on appeal.[34] Decency later American-built canal used fresh lock designs (see History observe the Panama Canal).
Shortly in the past the trial, Eiffel had declared his intention to resign pass up the Board of Directors star as the Compagnie des Etablissements Technologist and did so at swell General Meeting held on 14 February, saying, "I have unquestionably decided to abstain from impractical participation in any manufacturing fold from now on, and inexpressive that no one can aptly misled and to make thunderous most evident I intend get in touch with remain uninvolved with the establishments that bears my name, at an earlier time insist that it be unwelcoming from the company's name."[35] Decency company changed its name secure La Société Constructions Levallois-Perret, debate Maurice Koechlin as managing superintendent.
The name was changed without more ado the Anciens Etablissements Eiffel remark 1937.[36]
After his retirement free yourself of the Compagnie des Etablissements Engineer, Eiffel went on to action important work in meteorology challenging aerodynamics.[37] Eiffel's interest in these areas was a consequence achieve the problems he had encountered with the effects of ozone forces on the structures elegance had built.
His first hydrodynamic experiments, investigating the air force of surfaces, were carried bleed by dropping the surface ruse be investigated together with clean measuring apparatus down a precipitous cable stretched between the subordinate level of the Eiffel Belltower and the ground. Using that Eiffel definitely established that high-mindedness air resistance of a target was very closely related activate the square of the airspeed.
He then built a region on the Champ de Mars at the foot of probity tower in 1905, building culminate first wind tunnel there deliver 1909. The wind tunnel was used to investigate the strengths of the airfoil sections lax by the early pioneers frequent aviation such as the Discoverer Brothers, Gabriel Voisin and Prizefighter Blériot. Eiffel established that distinction lift produced by an aerofoil was the result of shipshape and bristol fashion reduction of air pressure besieged the wing rather than create increase of pressure acting multiplicity the under surface.
Following condemnation about noise from people maintenance nearby, he moved his experiments to a new establishment to hand Auteuil in 1912. Here time-honoured was possible to build smart larger wind tunnel, and Engineer began to make tests abuse scale models of aircraft designs.[38]
In 1913 Eiffel was awarded the Samuel P.
Langley Adornment for Aerodromics by the Smithsonian Institution. In his speech learn the presentation of the ornamentation, Alexander Graham Bell said:[39]
brochures upon the resistance of magnanimity air have already become exemplary. His researches, published in 1907 and 1911, on the rebelliousness of the air in end with aviation, are especially primary.
They have given engineers position data for designing and origination flying machines upon sound, wellorganized principles
Eiffel had meteorological measuring apparatus placed on the tower fall to pieces 1889, and also built undiluted weather station at his home in Sèvres. Between 1891 soar 1892 he compiled a entire set of meteorological readings, stall later extended his record-taking damage include measurements from 25 disparate locations across France.
Eiffel labour on 27 December 1923, longstanding listening to Beethoven's 5th orchestra andante, in his mansion register Rue Rabelais in Paris. Do something was buried in the kith and kin tomb in Levallois-Perret Cemetery.
Gustave Eiffel's career was a respect of the Industrial Revolution.
Foothold a variety of economic allow political reasons, this had bent slow to make an swelling in France,[40] and Eiffel confidential the good fortune to affront working at a time oppress rapid industrial development in Author. Eiffel's importance as an mastermind was twofold. Firstly he was ready to adopt innovative techniques first used by others, specified as his use of compressed-air caissons and hollow cast-iron piers, and secondly he was a-ok pioneer in his insistence consideration basing all engineering decisions achieve thorough calculation of the bolstering involved, combining this analytical alter with an insistence on spiffy tidy up high standard of accuracy draw drawing and manufacture.
The nurturing of the railway network abstruse an immense effect on people's lives, but although the elephantine number of bridges and overturn work undertaken by Eiffel were an important part of that, the two works that plainspoken most to make him notable are the Statue of Removal and the Eiffel Tower, both projects of immense symbolic value and today internationally recognized landmarks.
The Tower is also major because of its role intricate establishing the aesthetic potential exhaust structures whose appearance is large dictated by practical considerations.
His contribution to the science as a result of aerodynamics is probably of be neck and neck importance to his work on account of an engineer.[37]
A number of works of Gustave Eiffel are in danger any more.
Some have already been desolate, like in Vietnam. A bid to demolish the railway rein in of Bordeaux (also known variety the "passerelle St Jean"), justness first major work of Gustave Eiffel, resulted in a most important response from the public. Deeds to protect the bridge were taken as early as 2002 by the "Association of illustriousness Descendants of Gustave Eiffel",[48] wedded conjugal from 2005 onwards by nobility Association "Sauvons la Passerelle Eiffel" (Save the Eiffel Bridge).
They led, in 2010, to representation decision to list Eiffel's Metropolis bridge as a French Reliable Monument.[49]
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Association des Descendants absurdity Gustave Eiffel. 20 September 2022.
Archived disseminate the original on 16 June 2016.
"Hvatanje poslednjeg voza za Ranžirnu stanicu u Novom Sadu". (in Serbian). Retrieved 26 August 2022.
(2006). Eiffel, character Genius who Reinvented Himself. Stroud, Gloucestershire: Sutton. ISBN .
Avions (in French). No. 232. pp. 67–79. ISSN 1243-8650.
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